Excited further by the vast new land prospects and perceived labor needs, the same group of lawyers two years later in then crafted a law making it illegal for men to escape in search of liberty. Clearly stated, Black slaves were property and not to be viewed as anything more by men of any other means who wanted their free labor.
It was truly the worst of times, as men like John Adams threw down their ideals to the reasoning that slavery was not anti-Christ. The inspiration for personal liberty had to be born again by fathers and mothers and in Christ it was [61st and 62nd Generation], not by reasoning and laws crafted by lawyers.
Jeffersonian Overview. In fact, by year , it was clear to many adults of color living in presence of great leaders like Adams, Jefferson, Franklin, Hamilton and Washington that revolutionary thoughts began with beliefs in GOD Almighty; and the enacted constitution betrayed such, by excluding the God inspired declaration written by Jefferson from being an article in the basic law constitution. American liberty thus did not legally include property rights of Native Americans or personal liberty for people held as slaves and indentured servants.
It was an amazing feat of moral failure by founders. Lawyers like Massachusetts puritan descendent Congregationalist John Adams and Virginia born Anglican James Madison; had reasoned together with new words putting new wine into old bottles that burst within two generations of functional believers born, nurtured, inspired, motivated and educated in the faith. Matthew KJV - Neither do men put new wine into old bottles. Yes, there were many Black slave owners in Africa, Caribbean and the Americas, including United States, behind cotton, fruit, sugar and other plantation curtains.
And godless behavior prevailed to hold men, women and children in bondage for life due to the facts of their births or purchase contracts. And African degenerates welcomed more of the same shame that can not be ignored or overlooked by new generation writers.
We should never forget that slavery in America began in Africa where the evil values that sent us to bondage by others continued so long as ruthless men and women had the power to do so. Indeed, slavery was always about power, In fact, color is and was the least common denominator for judging slaves and slave-owners since not all were all Black or all White.
And many Native Americans such as the Cherokee tribes in the Piedmont region of Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia purchased and owned African slaves to labor in their fields until President Andrew Jackson took away their lands and removed them across the Mississippi River. And, when the Civil War erupted many Cherokee served in the Confederate forces based on Jefferson Davis promises to give them back some of their ancestral lands in the southeast taken away by President Jackson.
Cherokee Confederate Military Units. And, less anyone should ever forget, not all people of African heritage were ever the same color even in Africa way back then or now! In fact, Africans were of all colors, sizes, attitudes and behaviors known to humanity. Evil is not bound by locations, color or sex of the predators or victims. Slavery by the Hebrews in Africa, enslavement of the Slavs in Hellenist Greece, and equivalent suffering by millions in the Roman, Aksum, Ghana and Moslem Empires did not lessen the sin in eyes that viewed it in America and Caribbean.
Slavery was bad news, and never the good news espoused by Jesus Christ. And, chattel slavery or any other kind that categorized and classified human beings as property or deprived adults of personal liberty has to be viewed as anti-Christ: regardless of whether the offender was White or Black in fact or fancy before, during or after the Civil War.
We think it matters a lot in attempts to comprehend slavery and who rebelled against it. For Pauline Christian believers, perhaps the first great fight was against those who argued that Apostle Paul had approved of slavery urging slaves to be obedient to their masters.
Abolitionist countered by citing Jesus. Christianity and slavery. Many scholars have attempted to rationalize the existence of slavery anywhere or everywhere by not joining it to the beliefs and faiths they profess to have existed with their own ancestors. The true Second American Revolution was surely about the cause of personal liberty espousing human rights versus profiteering set forth as property rights including African Kings who viewed their subjects and others as royal property.
Both sides cited the roles of government in securing their rights against those who would deny one in the name of the other. Most African-American scholars unanimously agree with Frederick Douglass that personal liberty is an end in itself; and, religious ideology should not and must never ever supersede it. Let any person with a known ancestor who wanted to be a slave say so and tell the world why? Responding to a challenge question generated by Sojourner Truth, Frederick Douglass argued that since God was not dead, the hated institution of slavery would be ended in mass blood-shed.
It has always been a matter of faith among many descendents of slaves that divine intervention did at least incite a revolution of good versus evil. Most slave owners and traders, both Christians and Jews, were believers in God and most like Robert E.
Lee perceived their cause was the Word of God. And, we dare proclaim that if there was no intervention of God as many scholars would argue, Lee would likely have triumphed at Gettysburg and Hitler victorious in Europe.
And, also Japan in the Pacific. The great question is what do you dare believe about your victory? How do you join your own reasoning to your own faith about the unknown but yet believed? Founders Constitution. The first American Revolution waged in the last quarter of the 18th century established the principle that people anywhere ought have the God given collective right to organize and change unjust governments imposed over them by hereditary or otherwise aristocratic processes.
English Tudor Kings and Queens beginning with Henry II rebelled against beliefs that a priest, bishop, cardinal or pope were God's viceroys on earth or interpreters of divine rights of kings and queens. To be sure about it, the English Revolution of agitated by scholars like John Locke and executed by soldiers such as Oliver Cromwell, John Locke English philosopher John Locke was a founder of empiricism, a school of philosophy based on the belief that knowledge comes from everyday experience, scientific observation, and common sense, rather than from the application of reason alone.
All rights reserved. Locke had written that government comes into existence because of life, liberty and property; and, Jefferson modified this thought by the phrase life, liberty and pursuit of happiness.
Neither Locke or Jefferson had in mind "the least of us" but once written the words remained to inspire millions of people not yet born, and many millions more in places like France where aristocratic wealth ruled "the least of us" who were little more than serfs in the land of their birth. The French Revolution gave birth to the reactionary movement of aristocrats in England and elsewhere including America who were determined that what happened in France and Haiti should not engulf them and their titled property interests.
Thomas Jefferson feared and predicted that what did occur after his death would happen in America or any place and time wherein the rights of mankind are denigrated by governments. These laws have intricacy concerning constitutionality, consistency and merit. Thus, the writer investigated these issues and analyzed the legislations with regard to the objectives of criminal justice policy.
Related Articles:. Home References Article citations. Journals A-Z. The influx of close to 2 million pilgrims each year during the last month of the Islamic calendar is a grand human spectacle as well as one of the largest logistical and administrative undertakings in the world. Located in an arid valley surrounded by rocky hills, Mecca has had religious and commercial significance for centuries.
The city stood at the crossroads of two major trade routes: one connecting southern Arabia present-day Yemen and Oman with the lands of Egypt and Syria, and the other linking the Red Sea with the Persian Gulf coast and Mesopotamia roughly present-day Iraq.
By the time Muhammad was born in about , Mecca had become an important trading center; Muhammad himself came from a merchant family. After the spread of Islam and the growth of the Muslim community, the fortunes of Mecca rose and fell with the yearly ebb and flow of pilgrims.
To this day, the economy of the city depends to a great extent on accommodating, feeding, transporting, and otherwise caring for large numbers of pilgrims. And shortly, whan the sonne was to reste, 27 So hadde I spoken with hem everichoon That I was of hir felaweshipe anoon, And made forward erly for to rise, To take oure way ther as I you devise.
But nathelees, whil I have tyme and space, Er that I ferther in this tale pace, Me thinketh it acordaunt to resoun To telle yoe al the condicioun Of eech of hem, so as it seemed me, And whiche they were, and of what degree, And eek in what array that they were inne: And at a knight thanne wol I first biginne.
A knyght ther was, and that a worthy man, That fro the tyme that he first bigan To riden out, he loved chivalrye, Trouthe and honour, fredom and curteisye. Ful worthy was he in his lordes werre, And therto hadde he riden, no man ferre, As wel in Cristendom as in hethenesse, And evere honoured for his worthinesse. At Alisaundre he was whan it was wonne; Ful ofte tyme he hadde the boord bigonne Aboven alle nacions in Pruce; In Lettou hadde he reised, and in Ruce, No Cristen man so ofte of his degree; In Gernade at the sege eek hadde he be Of Algezir, and riden in Belmarye; At Lyes was he and at Satalye, Whan they were wonne; and in the Grete See At many a noble arivee hadde he be.
At mortal batailes hadde he been fifteene, And foughten for oure feith at Tramissene In listes thries, and ay slayn his fo. This ilke worthy knyght hadde been also Sometime with the lord of Palatye Again another hethen in Turkye; And everemore he hadde a soverein pris. And though that he were worthy, he was wis, And of his port as meeke as is a maide.
He nevere yet no vilainye ne saide In al his lif unto no manere wight. He was a verray, parfit, gentil knight. But, for to tellen yow of his array, His hors were goode, but he was nat gay. Of fustian he wered a gipoun 28 Al bismotered with his habergeoun, For he was late come from his viage, And wente for to doon his pilgrimage. With hym ther was his sone, a yong Squier, A lovere and a lusty bacheler, With lokkes crulle as they were led in presse.
Of twenty yeer of age he was, I gesse. Of his stature he was of evene lengthe, And wonderly delivere, and of greet strengthe. And he hadde been som time in chivachye In Flaundres, in Artois, and Picardye, And born him wel, as of so litel space, In hope to stonden in his lady grace. Embrouded was he as it were a mede Al ful of fresshe flowres, white and rede. Singing he was, or floiting, al the day: He was as fressh as is the month of May.
Short was his gowne, with sleves longe and wide. Wel coude he sitte on hors, and faire ride. He coude songes make, and wel endite, Juste and eek daunce, and wel portraye and write. So hote he loved that by nightertale He slepte namore than dooth a nightingale. Curteis he was, lowely, and servisable, And carf biforn his fader at the table. A Yeman hadde he and servants namo At that time, for him liste ride so; And he was clad in cote and hood of greene. A sheef of pecok arwes, bright and keene, Under his belt he bar ful thriftily; Wel coude he dresse his takel yemanly: His arwes drouped nought with fetheres lowe.
And in his hand he bar a mighty bowe. A not-heed hadde he, with a brown visage. Of wodecraft wel coude he al the usage. Upon his arm he bar a gay bracer, And by his side a swerd and a bokeler, And on that oother syde a gay daggere, Harneised wel and sharp as point of spere; A Cristophre on his brest of silver sheene; An horn he bar, the bawdrik was of greene; A forster was he, soothly, as I gesse. Ther was also a Nonne, a Prioresse, 29 That of hir smiling was ful simple and coy; Hir gretteste ooth was but by Sainte Loy!
And she was cleped Madame Eglentine. Ful wel she soong the service divine, Entuned in hir nose ful semely; And Frenssh she spak ful faire and fetisly, After the scole of Stratford at the Bowe— For Frenssh of Paris was to hire unknowe.
At mete wel ytaught was she withalle: She leet no morsel from hir lippes falle, Ne wette hir fingres in hir sauce deepe; Wel coude she carye a morsel, and wel keepe That no drope ne fille upon hir brest.
In curteisye was set ful muchel hir lest. Hir over-lippe wiped she so clene That in hir coppe ther was no ferthing seene Of grece, whan she dronken hadde hir draughte; Ful semely after hir mete she raughte. And sikerly she was of greet disport, And ful plesant, and amiable of port, And pained hire to countrefete cheere Of court, and to been statlich of manere, And to been holden digne of reverence.
But, for to speken of hir conscience, She was so charitable and so pitous She wolde weepe, if that she saw a mous Caught in a trappe, if it were deed or bledde. Of smale houndes hadde she that she fedde With rosted flessh, or milk and wastelbreed. But soore wepte she if oon of hem were deed, Or if men smoot it with a yerde smerte; And al was conscience and tendre herte.
Ful fetis was hir cloke, as I was war; Of smal coral aboute hir arm she bar A paire of bedes, gauded al with greene, And theron heeng a brooch of gold ful sheene, On which ther was first writen a crowned A, And after, Amor vincit omnia. Another nonne with hire hadde she, That was hir chapelaine, and preestes three. Ful many a daintee hors hadde he in stable, And whan he rood, men mighte his bridel heere Ginglen in a whistling wind as clere And eek as loude as dooth the chapel belle Ther as this lord was kepere of the celle, The rule of Saint Maure or of Saint Beneit, By cause that it was old and somdeel strait— This ilke Monk leet olde thinges pace, And heeld after the newe world the space.
He yaf nought of that text a pulled hen, That saith that hunteres been nought holy men, Ne that a monk, whan he is recchelees, Is likned til a fissh that is waterlees— This is to sayn, a monk out of his cloistre; But thilke text heeld he nat worth an oystre. And I saide his opinion was good: What sholde he studye and make himselven wood, Upon a book in cloistre alway to poure, Or swinke with his handes, and laboure, As Austin bit?
How shal the world be served? Lat Austin have his swink to him reserved! Therfore he was a prikasour aright. Grehoundes he hadde as swift as fowl in flight. Of priking and of hunting for the hare Was al his lust, for no cost wolde he spare. I saw his sleeves purfiled at the hand With gris, and that the fineste of a land; And for to festne his hood under his chin, He hadde of gold wrought a ful curious pin; A love-knotte in the grettere ende ther was.
He was nat pale as a forpined gost: A fat swan loved he best of any rost. His palfrey was as brown as is a berye. A Frere ther was, a wantoune and a merye, A limitour, a ful solempne man. In alle the ordres foure is noon that can So muche of daliaunce and fair langage. Ful wel biloved and familier was he With frankelains over al in his contree, And eek with worthy wommen of the town— For he hadde power of confessioun, As saide himself, more than a curat, For of his ordre he was licenciat. Ful swetely herde he confessioun, And plesant was his absolucioun: He was an esy man to yeve penaunce, Ther as he wiste to have a good pitaunce; For unto a poore ordre for to yive Is signe that a man is wel yshrive, For if he yaf, he dorste make avaunt He wiste that a man was repentaunt; For many a man so hard is of his herte, He may nat wepe, though hym sore smerte.
Therfore, in stede of weeping and prayeres, Men mote yive silver to the poore freres. His tipet was ay farsed ful of knives And pinnes, for to yiven faire wives. And certainly he hadde a merye note; Wel coude he singe and playen on a rote; Of yeddinges he bar outrely the pris. His nekke whit was as the flowr-de-lis; Therto he strong was as a champioun. He knew the tavernes wel in every toun, And every hostiler and tappestere, Bet than a lazar or a beggestere.
For unto swich a worthy man as he Acorded nat, as by his facultee, To have with sike lazars aquaintaunce: It is nat honeste, it may nought avaunce, For to delen with no swich poraile, But al with riche, and selleres of vitaile; And over al ther as profit sholde arise, Curteis he was and lowely of servise.
Ther was no man nowher so vertuous: He was the beste beggere in his hous. And yaf a certaine ferme for the graunt: Noon of his bretheren cam ther in his haunt. For though a widwe hadde noght a sho, So plesant was his In principio Yet wolde he have a ferthing, er he wente; His purchas was wel bettre than his rente.
Of double worstede was his semicope, That rounded as a belle out of the presse. This worthy limitour was cleped Huberd. A Marchant was ther with a forked beerd, In motelee, and hye on hors he sat, Upon his heed a Flandrissh bevere hat, His bootes clasped faire and fetisly. He wolde the see were kept for any thing Bitwixen Middelburgh and Orewelle.
Wel coude he in eschaunge sheeldes selle. This worthy man ful wel his wit bisette: Ther wiste no wight that he was in dette, So statly was he of his governaunce, With his bargaines, and with his chevissaunce.
Forsoothe he was a worthy man withalle, But, sooth to sayn, I noot how men hym calle. An actor recites this selection, which foretells the return of the fallen king. In the 15th century a number of poets were obviously influenced by Chaucer but, in general, medieval literary themes and styles were exhausted during this period. Sir Thomas Malory stands out for his great work, Le morte d'Arthur The Death of Arthur, , which carried on the tradition of Arthurian romance, from French sources, in English prose of remarkable vividness and vitality.
He loosely tied together stories of various knights of the Round Table, but most memorably of Arthur himself, of Galahad, and of the guilty love of Lancelot and Arthur's queen, Guinevere.
Despite the great variety of incident and the complications of plot in his work, the dominant theme is the need to sacrifice individual desire for the sake of national unity and religious salvation, the latter of which is envisioned in terms of the dreamlike but intense mystical symbolism of the Holy Grail.
The book is a translation and retelling of a diverse collection of tales that developed in 13th-century France into a body of work known as Arthurian romance. The stories are about the semilegendary King Arthur and his knight-adventurers, who followed the chivalric code of idealized love and the violent enforcement of right against wrong. Foremost among these knights is Lancelot, whose allegiance to Arthur is compromised by his love for Queen Guinevere also spelled Guenevere.
When the malice of two jealous knights, Sir Mordred and Sir Agravain, brings the affair into the open, a catastrophic chain of events follows. And all was long upon two unhappy knights which were named Sir Agravain and Sir Mordred, that were brethren unto Sir Gawain.
And all we know well that it is so, and it is shamefully suffered of us all that we should suffer so noble a king as King Arthur is so to be shamed. And the best of us all had been full cold at the heartroot had not Sir Lancelot been better than we, and that hath he proved himself full oft. And therefore, brother, methinks such noble deeds and kindness should be remembered. Here is I and my brother Sir Mordred broke unto my brother Sir Gawain, Sir Gaheris, and to Sir Gareth—for this is all, to make it short—how that we know all that Sir Lancelot holdeth your Queen, and hath done long; and we be your sister-sons, we may suffer it no longer.
And all we woot that ye should be above Sir Lancelot, and ye are the king that made him knight, and therefore we will prove it that he is a traitor to your person.
But I would be loath to begin such a thing but I might have proofs of it, for Sir Lancelot is an hardy knight, and all ye know he is the best knight among us all. And but if he be taken with the deed, he will fight with him that bringeth up the noise, and I know no knight that is able to match him. Therefore an it be sooth as ye say, I would that he were taken with the deed.
For the King had a deeming of it, but he would not hear of it, for Sir Lancelot had done so much for him and for the Queen so many times that, wit ye well, the king loved him passingly well. And so when it draweth toward night, ye may send the Queen word that ye will lie out all that night, and so may ye send for your cooks. And then, upon pain of death, that night we shall take him with the queen, and we shall bring him to you, quick or dead. So on the morn King Arthur rode on hunting, and sent word to the Queen that he would be out all that night.
Then Sir Agravain and Sir Mordred got to them twelve knights, and hid themself in a chamber in the castle of Carlisle. So when the night came, Sir Lancelot told Sir Bors how he would go that night and speak with the Queen.
Therefore I dread me sore of some treason. And wit ye well, I will not be so much a coward, but she shall understand I will see her good grace. And then, as the French book saith, the Queen and Lancelot were together. And whether they were abed or at other manner of disports, me list not thereof make no mention, for love that time was not as love is nowadays. And these fourteen knights were armed at all points, as they should fight in a battle.
And if there be any, give it me, and I shall soon stint their malice, by the grace of God! For I hear by their noise there be many noble knights, and well I woot they be surely armed, and against them ye may make no resistance.
Wherefore ye are likely to be slain, and then shall I be burned! For wit thou well thou art so beset that thou shalt not escape. For well I am assured that Sir Bors, my nephew, and all the remnant of my kin, with Sir Lavaine and Sir Urry, that they will not fail you to rescue you from the fire.
And therefore, mine own lady, recomfort yourself, whatsoever come of me, that ye go with Sir Bors, my nephew, and Sir Urry, and they all will do you all the pleasure that they may, and ye shall live like a queen upon my lands. And now I had liefer than to be lord of all Christendom, that I had sure armour upon me, that men might speak of my deeds ere ever I were slain. But Jesu Christ, be Thou my shield and mine armour! And therefore let us into this chamber, and we shall save thy life until thou come to King Arthur.
And he with a sword struck at Sir Lancelot mightily. And he put aside the stroke, and gave him such a buffet upon the helmet that he fell grovelling dead within the chamber door. And therefore an ye do by my counsel, go ye all from this chamber door, and make not such crying and such manner of slander as ye do. For I promise you by my knighthood, and ye will depart and make no more noise, I shall as tomorn appear afore you all and before the king, and then let it be seen which of you all, other else ye all, that will deprove me of treason; and there I shall answer you as a knight should, that hither I came to the Queen for no manner of mal engine, and that will I prove and make it good upon you with my hands.
For we let thee wit we have the choice of King Arthur to save thee or to slay thee. Then keep yourself! Within a little while he laid them cold to the earth, for there was none of the twelve knights that might stand [from] Sir Lancelot one buffet.
And also he wounded Sir Mordred, and therewithal [then] he fled with all his might. And therefore, Madam, an it like you that I may have you with me, I shall save you from all manner adventurous dangers. And if ye see that as tomorn they will put me unto death, then may ye rescue me as ye think best. Writing in Latin, the scholarly language of the 16th century, More retold what he learned about Utopia from Raphael Hythloday, a fictitious Portuguese sailor.
More contrasted elements of Utopia with England, using the fictional comparison to point out problems in English society and government. From Utopia By Sir Thomas More The Geography of Utopia The island of the Utopians is two hundred miles across in the middle part where it is widest, and is nowhere much narrower than this except toward the two ends. These ends, drawn toward one another as if in a five-hundred-mile circle, make the island crescent-shaped like a new moon.
Between the horns of the crescent, which are about eleven miles apart, the sea enters and spreads into a broad bay. Being sheltered from the wind by the surrounding land, the bay is never rough, but quiet and smooth instead, like a big lake. Thus, nearly the whole inner coast is one great harbor, across which ships pass in every direction, to the great advantage of the people. What with shallows on one side, and rocks on the other, the entrance into the bay is very dangerous.
Near the middle of the channel, there is one rock that rises above the water, and so presents no dangers in itself; on top of it a tower has been built, and there a garrison is kept. Since the other rocks lie under water, they are very dangerous to navigation. The channels are known only to the Utopians, so hardly any strangers enter the bay without one of their pilots; and even they themselves could not enter safely if they did not direct themselves by some landmarks on the coast.
If they should shift these landmarks about, they could lure to destruction an enemy fleet coming against them, however big it was. On the outer side of the island there are likewise occasional harbors; but the coast is rugged by nature, and so well fortified that a few defenders could beat off the attack of a strong force. They say and the appearance of the place confirms this that their land was not always an island.
But Utopus, who conquered the country and gave it his name it had previously been called Abraxa , brought its rude and uncouth inhabitants to such a high level of culture and humanity that they now excel in that regard almost every other people.
After subduing them at his first landing, he cut a channel fifteen miles wide where their land joined the continent, and caused the sea to flow around the country. He put not only the natives to work at this task, but all his own soldiers too, so that the vanquished would not think the labor a disgrace. With the 40 work divided among so many hands, the project was finished quickly, and the neighboring peoples, who at first had laughed at his folly, were struck with wonder and terror at his success.
There are fifty-four cities on the island, all spacious and magnificent, identical in language, customs, institutions, and laws. So far as the location permits, all of them are built on the same plan, and have the same appearance. The nearest are at least twenty-four miles apart, and the farthest are not so remote that a man cannot go on foot from one to the other in a day.
Once a year each city sends three of its old and experienced citizens to Amaurot to consider affairs of common interest to the island. Amaurot is the chief city, lies near the omphalos of the land, so to speak, and convenient to every other district, so it acts as a capital. Every city has enough ground assigned to it so that at least twelve miles of farm land are available in every direction, though where the cities are farther apart, they have much more land.
No city wants to enlarge its boundaries, for the inhabitants consider themselves good tenants rather than landlords. At proper intervals all over the countryside they have built houses and furnished them with farm equipment.
These houses are inhabited by citizens who come to the country by turns to occupy them. No rural house has fewer than forty men and women in it, besides two slaves. A master and mistress, serious and mature persons, are in charge of each household. Over every thirty households is placed a single phylarch. Each year twenty persons from each rural household move back to the city, after completing a two-year stint in the country. In their place, twenty others are sent out from town, to learn farm work from those who have already been in the country for a year, and who are better skilled in farming.
They, in turn, will teach those who come the following year. If all were equally unskilled in farm work, and new to it, they might harm the crops out of ignorance. This custom of alternating farm workers is solemnly established so that no one will have to do such hard work against his will for more than two years; but many of them who take a natural pleasure in farm life ask to stay longer. The farm workers till the soil, raise cattle, hew wood, and take it to the city by land or water, as is most convenient.
They breed an enormous number of chickens by a marvelous method. Men, not hens, hatch the eggs by keeping them in a warm place at an even temperature.
As soon as they come out of the shell, the chicks recognize the men, follow them around, and are devoted to them instead of to their real mothers. They raise very few horses, and these full of mettle, which they keep only to exercise the young men in the art of horsemanship.
For the heavy work of plowing and hauling they use oxen, which they agree are inferior to horses over the short haul, but which can hold out longer under heavy burdens, are less subject to disease as they suppose , and so can be kept with less cost and trouble. Moreover, when oxen are too old for work, they can be used for meat.
Grain they use only to make bread. They drink wine, apple or pear cider, or simple water, which they sometimes mix with honey or licorice, of which they have an abundance.
Although they know very well, down to the last detail, how much grain each city and its surrounding district will consume, they produce much more grain and cattle than they need for themselves, and share the surplus with their neighbors. Whatever goods the folk in the country need which cannot be produced there, they request of the town magistrates, and since there is nothing to be paid or exchanged, they get what they want at once, without any haggling.
They generally go to town once a month in any case, to observe the holy days. When harvest time approaches, the phylarchs in the country notify the town-magistrates how many hands will be needed. Crews of harvesters come just when they're wanted, and in one day of good weather they can usually get in the whole crop. So I'll describe one of them, and no matter which. But what one rather than Amaurot the most worthy of all? Well, then, Amaurot lies up against a gently sloping hill; the town is almost square in shape.
From a little below the crest of the hill, it runs down about two miles to the river Anyder, and then spreads out along the river bank for a somewhat greater distance. The Anyder rises from a small spring about eighty miles above Amaurot, but other streams flow into it, two of them being pretty big, so that, as it runs past Amaurot, the river has grown to a width of half a mile. It continues to grow even larger until at last, sixty miles farther along, it is lost in the ocean.
In all this stretch between the sea and the city, and also for some miles above the city, the river is tidal, ebbing and flowing every six hours with a swift current.
When the tide comes in, it fills the whole Anyder with salt water for about thirty miles, driving the fresh water back. Even above that for several miles farther, the water is brackish; but a little higher up, as it runs past the city, the water is always fresh, and when the tide ebbs, the water runs clean and sweet all the way to the sea.
On three sides it is also surrounded by a dry ditch, broad and deep and filled with thorn hedges; on its fourth side the river itself serves as a moat. The streets are conveniently laid out for use by vehicles and for protection from the wind. Their buildings are by no means paltry; the unbroken rows of houses facing each other across the streets through the different wards make a fine sight. The streets are twenty feet wide.
Behind each row of houses at the center of every block and extending the full length of the street, there are large gardens. Every house has a door to the street and another to the garden. The doors, which are made with two leaves, open easily and swing shut automatically, letting anyone enter who wants to— and so there is no private property.
Every ten years, they change houses by lot. The Utopians are very fond of these gardens of theirs. They raise vines, fruits, herbs, and flowers, so thrifty and flourishing that I have never seen any gardens more productive or elegant than theirs.
They keep interested in gardening, partly because they delight in it, and also because of the competition between different streets which challenge one another to produce the best gardens. Certainly you will find nothing else in the whole city more useful or more pleasant to the citizens. And this gives reason to think that the founder of the city paid particular attention to the siting of these gardens. Over every group of ten syphogrants with their households there is another official, once called the tranibor but now known as the head phylarch.
All the syphogrants, two hundred in number, are brought together to elect the prince. They take an oath to choose the man they think best qualified; and then by secret ballot they elect the prince from among four men nominated by the people of the four sections of the city.
The prince holds office for life, unless he is suspected of aiming at a tyranny. Though the tranibors are elected annually, they are not changed for light or casual reasons. All their other officials hold office for a single year only.
I'm really quite ashamed to tell you how they do keep it, because you probably won't believe me. I would not have believed it myself if someone had just told me about it; but I was there, and saw it with my own eyes.
It is a general rule that the more different anything is from what people are used to, the harder it is to accept. But, considering that all their other customs are so unlike ours, a sensible man will not be surprised that they use gold and silver quite differently than we do. After all, they never do use money among themselves, but keep it only for a contingency which may or may not actually arise.
So in the meanwhile they take care that no one shall overvalue gold and silver, of which money is made, beyond what the metals themselves deserve. Anyone can see, for example, that iron is far superior to either; men could not live without iron, by heaven, any more than without fire or water.
But gold and silver have, by nature, no function that we cannot easily dispense with. Human folly has made them precious because they are rare. Like a most wise and generous mother, nature has placed the best things everywhere and in the open, like air, water, and the earth itself; but she has hidden away in remote places all vain and unprofitable things. If in Utopia gold and silver were kept locked up in some tower, foolish heads among the common people might well concoct a story that the prince and the senate were out to cheat ordinary folk and get some advantage for themselves.
They might indeed put the gold and silver into beautiful plate-ware and rich handiwork, but then in case of necessity the people would not want to give up such articles, on which they had begun to fix their hearts, only to melt them down for soldiers' pay. To avoid all these inconveniences, they thought of a plan which conforms with their institutions as clearly as it contrasts with our own.
Unless we've actually seen it working, their plan may seem ridiculous to us, because we prize gold so highly and are so careful about protecting it. With them it's just the other way.
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